Interrogating the Strategic Importance of Adopting a 24‑Hour Economy on the Road to an Upper‑Middle‑Income Economy in Zimbabwe

Introduction

Zimbabwe’s National Development Strategy 1 (NDS1, 2021–2025) constitutes the first medium‑term plan for operationalising Vision 2030, which aspires to transform Zimbabwe into an upper‑middle‑income economy by 2030 (Government of Zimbabwe, 2020). Central to NDS1 are macroeconomic stabilisation, re‑industrialisation, value‑addition, export growth, and extensive infrastructure rehabilitation. The forthcoming National Development Strategy 2 (NDS2) is expected to consolidate these gains, deepen structural transformation, and further integrate Zimbabwe into regional and global value chains.

Since the advent of the Second Republic under President E.D. Mnangagwa in 2017, infrastructure development has been elevated to a strategic priority and is being pursued at an unprecedented scale. Major projects include the upgrading and expansion of trunk road networks such as the Harare–Beitbridge highway, rehabilitation of the Harare–Chirundu and Harare–Mutare corridors, modernisation of the Robert Gabriel Mugabe International Airport, expansion of energy generation capacity (including the Hwange Units 7 and 8 power projects), and rehabilitation of key dams and irrigation schemes (Munjeyi & Mafuso, 2022; Zinyama & Mhlanga, 2023). These interventions are explicitly framed by Government as critical enablers for increased productivity, investment attraction, regional connectivity, and ultimately, attainment of upper‑middle‑income status by 2030 (Government of Zimbabwe, 2020).

Within this broader transformation agenda, the strategic interrogation of a 24‑hour economy is highly pertinent. A 24‑hour or “round‑the‑clock” economy—where commercial and service activities operate continuously beyond conventional working hours—has increasingly been adopted in major global and regional hubs to respond to evolving consumer demand, global supply chains, and digital integration (Pappalepore, Maitland & Smith, 2014; Roberts & Turner, 2021). For Zimbabwe, the combination of large‑scale infrastructure investments under the Second Republic and a gradual move towards 24‑hour operations could constitute a powerful lever for raising productivity, expanding employment, and enhancing competitiveness.

This essay interrogates the strategic importance of adopting a 24‑hour economy in Zimbabwe on the road to upper‑middle‑income status, explicitly situating recent infrastructural developments under the Second Republic as foundational enablers. Rostow’s stages of economic growth are employed as a heuristic framework, and contemporary literature on infrastructure‑led growth, night‑time economies, and African urbanisation is used to strengthen the analysis.

Theoretical Framework: Rostow’s Stages of Economic Growth

Rostow’s (1960) stages of economic growth outline a linear progression through five stages: traditional society; preconditions for take‑off; take‑off; drive to maturity; and age of high mass consumption. While the model has recognised limitations, it remains useful as a heuristic for understanding structural transformation (Peet & Hartwick, 2015).

Traditional Society – Dominated by subsistence agriculture and low productivity.

Preconditions for Take‑off** – Investment in infrastructure, emergence of modern institutions, and development of entrepreneurial capacity.

-Take‑off – Rapid industrialisation, technological diffusion, and rising investment.

- Drive to Maturity – Diversification of production, higher value‑added activities, and sustained productivity growth.

- Age of High Mass Consumption – Expansion of services, consumer goods, and welfare provision.

In the Zimbabwean context, the infrastructure‑led agenda of the Second Republic, articulated through NDS1 and to be deepened under NDS2, can be interpreted as an attempt to consolidate the “preconditions for take‑off” and support a renewed “take‑off” phase after a period of de‑industrialisation and macroeconomic instability (Mzumara, 2021). Large‑scale investments in roads, energy, airports, dams, digital infrastructure, and urban renewal are characteristic of this stage (Adenle, Manning & Arbiol, 2017; Government of Zimbabwe, 2020).

A 24‑hour economy, by contrast, is more closely associated with the “drive to maturity” and “age of high mass consumption” stages, where economies harness advanced infrastructure and institutional capacity to maximise capital utilisation, support diversified urban economies, and integrate into global time zones (Glaeser & Gottlieb, 2009; Roberts & Turner, 2021). Thus, the rapid infrastructural development achieved to date under the Second Republic is not only an end in itself; it is a critical precondition for any credible move towards a 24‑hour economy and, ultimately, upper‑middle‑income status.

Infrastructural Development Under the Second Republic as a Foundation for Transformation

Infrastructure is widely recognised as a key driver of economic growth and structural transformation, particularly in developing economies (Calderón & Servén, 2014; Adenle et al., 2017). Since 2018, the Second Republic has accelerated infrastructure delivery in line with NDS1’s Pillar on Infrastructure and Utilities.

 Transport Infrastructure

Flagship projects include:

Harare–Beitbridge Highway Rehabilitation and Upgrading: This regional trunk road, forming part of the North–South Corridor, is being widened, resurfaced, and modernised. It connects Zimbabwe to South Africa and beyond, facilitating trade and transit logistics (Munjeyi & Mafuso, 2022).

 Rehabilitation of Other Strategic Highways: Upgrading of the Harare–Chirundu and Harare–Mutare highways, and improvements on feeder roads, are enhancing domestic connectivity and reducing transport costs.

Airport Modernisation: The expansion and modernisation of Robert Gabriel Mugabe International Airport, and improvements at other airports, are intended to position Zimbabwe as an aviation and tourism hub in the region.

These investments reduce travel times, improve reliability, and are essential for supporting extended logistics and transport operations that underpin a 24‑hour economy (OECD, 2022).

 Energy and Power Generation

Energy supply is a binding constraint for any 24‑hour economic model. Under the Second Republic. Hwange Units 7 and 8 Expansion has added significant generation capacity to the national grid, reducing power deficits and dependence on imports (Zinyama & Mhlanga, 2023).

 Investment in Renewable Energy: Policy support for solar and small hydro projects aligns with NDS1’s emphasis on diversifying the energy mix and enhancing sustainability (Government of Zimbabwe, 2020). Reliable and affordable electricity is indispensable for multi‑shift manufacturing, ICT services, and night‑time urban economies (IEA, 2021).

 Water, Dams and Irrigation

The construction and rehabilitation of dams and irrigation schemes, such as Gwayi–Shangani Dam and other regional water projects, aim to support climate‑resilient agriculture, urban water security, and agro‑industrial value chains. These interventions underpin 24‑hour agro‑processing and cold‑chain logistics, which are essential for export horticulture and food security (Adenle et al., 2017).

 Digital and ICT Infrastructure

Expansion of mobile broadband coverage, fibre‑optic backbones, and e‑government platforms has progressed under the Second Republic, in line with NDS1’s digital economy objectives (Munjeyi & Mafuso, 2022). Digital infrastructure enables e‑commerce, online financial services, and ICT‑enabled business process outsourcing, all of which benefit from 24‑hour operations aligned with global time zones (OECD, 2022).

Collectively, these infrastructural developments significantly strengthen Zimbabwe’s capacity to transition towards a more flexible and ultimately 24‑hour economy. They also constitute core elements of the structural transformation required for upper‑middle‑income status.

 Transitioning Towards Upper‑Middle‑Income Status: The Role of Infrastructure and Time

International experience, particularly from East Asia, underscores that infrastructure‑led growth, coupled with industrial policy and human capital development, is central to transitioning from low‑income to upper‑middle‑income status (Kim, 1997; Lee, 2019). South Korea and Singapore invested heavily in transport, energy, ports, and digital infrastructure to support export‑oriented industrialisation, later evolving into high‑tech and service‑dominated economies.

Zimbabwe’s current trajectory under the Second Republic—characterised by substantial infrastructure investment and policy reforms under NDS1—aligns with this pattern (Munjeyi & Mafuso, 2022). The strategic question is how best to leverage these infrastructural gains. A 24‑hour economy offers one avenue for maximising the returns on infrastructure by:

- Increasing utilisation rates of roads, airports, and logistics facilities through round‑the‑clock freight and passenger operations;

- Supporting continuous industrial production in sectors such as mining beneficiation, agro‑processing, and light manufacturing;

- Facilitating tourism, hospitality, and creative industries that rely on extended hours; and

- Enabling ICT and financial services to operate across global time zones.

Thus, infrastructure development under the Second Republic is not only a necessary condition for growth; it is a critical enabler for the temporal reconfiguration of economic activity that characterises mature, competitive economies.

Strategic Rationale for a 24‑Hour Economy in Zimbabwe

 Productivity and Capital Utilisation

Extended operating hours allow firms to run multiple shifts, thereby increasing output without commensurate increases in fixed capital. Where reliable power, transport, and digital infrastructure are in place—as increasingly is the case in Zimbabwe—this can raise total factor productivity (Roberts & Turner, 2021; Zhang, 2019). The rehabilitated Harare–Beitbridge corridor and expanded power capacity at Hwange, for example, can support continuous freight movement and multi‑shift production in export‑oriented sectors.

Employment Creation and Labour Market Inclusion

A 24‑hour economy generates additional employment opportunities in production, logistics, security, maintenance, retail, and hospitality (Hadfield, 2015; Reuschke & Houston, 2019). For Zimbabwe, where unemployment and informality remain high, carefully regulated shift work can contribute to inclusive growth, particularly for youth and women, in line with NDS1’s employment objectives (Government of Zimbabwe, 2020; Zinyama & Mhlanga, 2023). However, robust labour protections are essential to prevent exploitation and negative health outcomes (Standing, 2014; Wang et al., 2021).

 Enhanced Services and Urban Competitiveness

Continuous operation of key services—such as public transport on major corridors, emergency healthcare, and selected retail and financial services—improves urban livability and economic efficiency (Pappalepore et al., 2014; OECD, 2022). The modernisation of airports and key highways under the Second Republic can be leveraged to establish 24‑hour logistics hubs and service clusters, positioning Harare, Bulawayo, and other cities as competitive regional centres.

 Investment Attraction

Infrastructure‑rich environments with flexible operating hours are attractive to investors in logistics, manufacturing, tourism, and ICT (OECD, 2022). By demonstrating that roads, power, and digital systems can support 24‑hour operations, Zimbabwe can enhance its investment proposition, in line with NDS1 and Vision 2030.

Social, Environmental and Governance Implications

Social Implications

The adoption of a 24‑hour economy will alter social rhythms, family structures, and community life. While flexible hours may provide opportunities for some households, they can also generate challenges related to childcare, community cohesion, and personal safety, especially at night (Hadfield, 2015; Wang et al., 2021). Policy responses should therefore integrate social protection, gender‑sensitive planning, and community participation, consistent with NDS1’s social development pillars (Government of Zimbabwe, 2020).

 Environmental Implications

Extended operations will increase aggregate energy demand and could exacerbate environmental pressures if not aligned with a green growth strategy. The Second Republic’s investments in renewable energy, alongside Hwange expansion, must be complemented by energy‑efficiency measures and strict environmental standards to prevent increased emissions and urban pollution (IEA, 2021; Adenle et al., 2017). Urban environmental management—waste collection, air quality control, and noise regulation—will become increasingly important as night‑time activity expands (Mabin, 2020).

Governance and Regulation

Transitioning to a 24‑hour economy requires adjustments to labour laws, zoning regulations, business licensing, and public safety protocols. The state must ensure that extended hours do not erode workers’ rights, undermine occupational health and safety, or exacerbate inequality (Standing, 2014; Wang et al., 2021). At the same time, governance capacity—especially at local government level—must be strengthened to manage 24‑hour corridors, including security, transport scheduling, and urban services (Mabin, 2020; OECD, 2022).

Public–private partnerships (PPPs), already promoted under NDS1, can play a crucial role in financing and managing 24‑hour infrastructure and services, including toll roads, logistics hubs, and digital platforms (Adenle et al., 2017).

 International and African City Experiences

Global cities such as Tokyo and New York demonstrate how 24‑hour economies, anchored in robust infrastructure, contribute substantially to GDP, employment, and global connectivity (Fujita & Tabuchi, 2001; Nishimura, 2019). Tokyo’s evolution as a 24‑hour global city involved:

- Extensive investment in transport infrastructure, including late‑night and 24‑hour services;

- Regulatory reforms to permit extended business hours and diversified night‑time activities;

- Advanced security and surveillance systems; and

- Integration of smart technologies to optimise urban management (Yamazaki & Suzuki, 2018; Nishimura, 2019).

In Africa, cities such as Lagos, Cairo, Johannesburg, Nairobi, and Accra are gradually developing 24‑hour nodes in logistics, finance, hospitality, and entertainment, building on improvements in infrastructure and governance (Mabin, 2020; Roberts & Turner, 2021). These experiences underscore both the potential gains and the risks of congestion, crime, and environmental stress if growth is not well managed.

Zimbabwe can draw important lessons from these cases: the necessity of sequencing (starting with infrastructure‑ready corridors), the importance of integrated planning linking roads, energy, ICT, and policing, and the centrality of inclusive, sustainable urban governance.

 Challenges and Policy Responses

Key challenges to establishing a 24‑hour economy in Zimbabwe include:

Infrastructure Gaps and Maintenance: Despite substantial progress, further work is required to complete and maintain road, energy, and digital projects and to extend them to secondary cities and rural growth points (Mzumara, 2021; Zinyama & Mhlanga, 2023).

Security Concerns: Crime and perceptions of insecurity can limit night‑time activity. Comprehensive security strategies—community policing, improved lighting, CCTV, and judicial efficiency—are required (Nishimura, 2019; Yamazaki & Suzuki, 2018).

- Labour and Social Protection: Risks of worker fatigue, health issues, and precarious employment must be mitigated through labour law reforms, enforcement, and social dialogue (Standing, 2014; Wang et al., 2021).

- Environmental Sustainability: Increased energy use and waste must be managed through green technologies, renewable energy, and improved urban environmental governance (IEA, 2021; Mabin, 2020).

Policy responses should therefore include:

- Consolidation and extension of current infrastructure programmes under NDS1 and NDS2, with a deliberate focus on 24‑hour‑ready corridors and sectors;

- Labour law reforms to regulate shift work and protect workers;

- Integrated urban safety and environmental management plans;

- Strategic use of PPPs to finance and manage 24‑hour infrastructure and services.

 Conclusion

The infrastructural development achieved to date under the Second Republic—particularly in transport, energy, water, and ICT—constitutes a crucial step towards the attainment of an upper‑middle‑income economy by 2030. These investments directly address the “preconditions for take‑off” in Rostow’s framework and lay the foundations for a renewed “take‑off” and eventual “drive to maturity”.

Within this context, the adoption of a 24‑hour economy emerges as a strategic option for maximising the economic returns on infrastructure, deepening structural transformation, and enhancing Zimbabwe’s integration into regional and global markets. International and African experiences demonstrate that, when underpinned by robust infrastructure and sound governance, 24‑hour economies can increase productivity, create employment, and strengthen urban competitiveness.

However, the transition to a 24‑hour economy must be carefully sequenced and regulated. It should build on completed and operational infrastructure, be targeted at sectors and locations with clear comparative advantage, and be accompanied by strong labour, social, and environmental safeguards. If pursued in this manner, the combination of infrastructure‑led development under the Second Republic and a calibrated move towards a 24‑hour economy can significantly enhance Zimbabwe’s prospects of achieving its Vision 2030 target of upper‑middle‑income status.

References

Adenle, A.A., Manning, L. & Arbiol, J. (2017) Mitigating climate change in Africa: barriers to financing low‑carbon development. World Development, 100, 123–132.

Calderón, C. & Servén, L. (2014) Infrastructure, growth, and inequality: an overview. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No. 7034.

Fujita, M. & Tabuchi, T. (2001) Urban economic transition in Tokyo: lessons for developing cities. Regional Science and Urban Economics, 31(1), 29–51.

Glaeser, E.L. & Gottlieb, J.D. (2009) The wealth of cities: agglomeration economies and spatial equilibrium in the United States. Journal of Economic Literature, 47(4), 983–1028.

Government of Zimbabwe (2020) National Development Strategy 1 (2021–2025). Harare: Government of Zimbabwe.

Hadfield, P. (2015) Nightlife and Crime: Social Order and Governance in International Perspective. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

International Energy Agency (IEA) (2021) Africa Energy Outlook 2022. Paris: IEA.

Kim, L. (1997) From Imitation to Innovation: The Dynamics of Korea’s Technological Learning. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.

Lee, K. (2019) The Korean economy: From fast follower to innovator. In: Noland, M. (ed.) Economic Growth and Structural Change in East Asia. New York: Columbia University Press, pp. 87–112.

Mabin, A. (2020) Urbanisation, infrastructure and spatial inequality in African cities. Urban Studies, 57(13), 2715–2733.

Munjeyi, E. & Mafuso, T. (2022) Assessing the potential of Zimbabwe’s National Development Strategy 1 (2021–2025) in achieving Vision 2030. Journal of Southern African Development, 9(2), 45–63.

Mzumara, M. (2021) Industrial decline and the prospects for re‑industrialisation in Zimbabwe. African Journal of Economic Review, 9(1), 150–171.

Nishimura, Y. (2019) Nightlife economy in Tokyo: bridging culture and commerce. Journal of Urban Cultural Studies, 6(2), 205–222.

Organisation for Economic Co‑operation and Development (OECD) (2022) The Night‑Time Economy in Cities: Governance, Planning and Policy. Paris: OECD.

Pappalepore, I., Maitland, R. & Smith, A. (2014) Prosuming creative urban areas: evidence from Hackney. Annals of Tourism Research, 44, 227–240.

Peet, R. & Hartwick, E. (2015) Theories of Development: Contentions, Arguments, Alternatives. 3rd edn. New York: Guilford Press.

Roberts, M. & Turner, C. (2021) 24‑hour cities and productivity: evidence from international financial centres. Urban Studies, 58(11), 2269–2287.

Rodrik, D. (2016) Premature deindustrialization. Journal of Economic Growth, 21(1), 1–33.

Rostow, W.W. (1960) The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non‑Communist Manifesto. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Standing, G. (2014) The Precariat: The New Dangerous Class. London: Bloomsbury.

Wang, X., Wang, X., Li, H. & Chen, Y. (2021) Night shift work, health, and well‑being: a systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(12), 1–18.

World Bank (2020) World Development Report 2020: Trading for Development in the Age of Global Value Chains. Washington, DC: World Bank.

Yamazaki, T. & Suzuki, K. (2018) Embracing the night: Tokyo’s transition to a 24‑hour economy. Journal of Urban Affairs, 40(5), 635–652.

Zhang, J. (2019) Shift work and productivity in manufacturing: evidence from Chinese firms. China Economic Review, 58, 101327.

Zinyama, T. & Mhlanga, N. (2023) Employment creation and structural transformation in Zimbabwe: opportunities and constraints. Journal of African Political Economy and Development, 8(1), 89–112.